Why Does Vandalism Occur free essay sample

Why does vandalism occur? Vandalism is everywhere, why do it? It is stupid and reckless, not to mention illegal! It occurs because of bad choices you as a person make, like who you surround yourself around and the friends you choose. Or because of the mood or mindset you are in. There are many reasons why vandalism occurs, but not many ways to putting it to a stop. Friends are not always your friends! Friends sometimes get you into sticky situations, but friends are not the one’s making your choices for you, they might have a large influence on the circumstance in which you are in but ultimately you are responsible for your own actions. If someone asks you if you want to tag along in something that is illegal like vandalism, well then I would say â€Å"that is not your friend. † You make your own decisions so why choose to associate yourself around people you think that are your friends that are going to get you in trouble by doing stupid illegal activities such as vandalism? A person’s background is something that cannot be changed but it is something that you can learn from and make better choices. We will write a custom essay sample on Why Does Vandalism Occur? or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Mad or angry? Don’t take it out on something else by destroying or defacing it. Cry! Yes cry, do something because if you don’t your going to do something you will regret for the rest of your life, get help! Talk to someone, relieve your stress in a way that won’t harm, or destroy anything or anyone. The best advise I would give for someone that comes from a bad background would be to get counseling or talk to someone before you take your problems out in a way that is illegal or irrational. Why do it? Vandalism! It is stupid! Don’t be that person that gets caught up doing illegal activities and ruining your life when you could be making choices for the better. Don’t make bad choices when it comes to choosing your friends, and don’t let someone talk you into something you don’t want to do. Don’t be stupid and reckless! Why be the bad kid on the block when you don’t have to be?

Strength of an uncooked spaghetti Essays

Strength of an uncooked spaghetti Essays Strength of an uncooked spaghetti Paper Strength of an uncooked spaghetti Paper Aim: To investigate and determine the relationship between the length of uncooked spaghetti and the load applied to it reaching its [uncooked spaghettis] breaking point.  General background:  Regular wheat pastas i.e. pastas that need cooking for consumption can be made simply by mixing wheat flour with water, then extruding into pasta shapes and drying. The resulting pasta has good strength, with good cooked firmness and low cooking losses. The strength of an object can be affected by various factors, such as: size, mass, temperature and many more. However, when it comes to the case of uncooked spaghetti, there are two main factors which affect the strength of uncooked spaghetti. These are: the length of uncooked spaghetti and the cross-sectional area of uncooked spaghetti.  In this experiment, I will investigate the effect the length of uncooked spaghetti has on its strength.  Hypothesis:  I predict that the longest piece of uncooked spaghetti will be more fragile and brittle compared to the shorter pieces of uncooked spaghetti. This means that the length of uncooked spaghetti will be inversely proportional to its strength i.e. the shorter the piece of uncooked spaghetti the stronger it would be and vice versa. Independent Variables:  The independent variable in this experiment was the known length of the piece of uncooked spaghetti.  Dependent Variables:  In this experiment, the dependent variable was the volume of water added to the plastic cup suspended on the piece of uncooked spaghetti.  Controlled Variables:  The controlled variables involved in this experiment were: the cross sectional area of the spaghetti i.e. the same type of spaghetti was used meaning with the same thickness and the temperature at which the experiment was conducted. 1. First I took two small tables and placed them parallel to each other. Then using pieces of cello tape I clamped the two ends of a piece of spaghetti of known length to the two tables.  2. Then I measured the mass of the plastic container used in the experiment. I tied two pieces of string to both sides of the container and rested it over the piece of spaghetti.  3. Then I filled the measuring cylinder with 25 cm3 of water and poured it into the plastic container. If the piece of spaghetti did not break due to this, I filled the measuring cylinder again and poured more water into the container. 4. I calculated the volume of water added to the container before the spaghetti broke and noted down my readings.  5. All the above steps were repeated for various lengths of spaghettis i.e. 23 cm, 20 cm, 17 cm, 14 cm, 11 cm and 8 cm.  6. Thereafter, I carried out the calculations needed using the above collected readings which are outlined in the following pages.  The length of the piece of uncooked spaghetti was varied by moving the small tables closer to or farther from each other, depending on what the span of the spaghetti had to be. And the length of the spaghetti used was measured using a measuring tape. The volume of water added to the plastic container resting over the piece of uncooked spaghetti was measured using a measuring cylinder and then added to the container. I made sure that my eye level was perpendicular to the mark on the scale towards which the lower meniscus of the water pointed.  Since the same type of spaghetti was used, the thickness i.e. the cross-sectional area of the spaghetti was kept constant hence, not affecting the readings obtained. The temperature at which all the experiments were conducted also remained constant in the room and this was made sure by constantly measuring the temperature of the room every 15 minutes and noting down the temperatures.

Get Your Mariners Safety Training Certification

Get Your Mariners Safety Training Certification If you are looking for a job in a maritime field, you may consider obtaining your  Standards for Training Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW) certification. This certification is a basic safety training but it can be an important stepping stone to landing your dream job. Step 1: Determine How You Will Use Your Training Your ultimate goal will determine the best path to your  STCW certification. If youre not sure about the exact job you want thats okay because most of the following steps apply to everyone seeking this basic safety training. The two main exceptions are employer specific courses like those designed for cruise ships and post-military personnel who want to transfer their skills to civilian certifications. Even if you fall into one of these categories there are advantages to following these steps. Step 2: Determine the Job Requirements for Your Goal Position If you have a target employer and job it should be very easy to get a job description plus minimal and preferred requirements. STCW certification is recognized internationally and varies little from the original IMO convention. Not every operation will have a written description of requirements and some may simply adopt a standardized description from a third party or government agency. If you are on your own in this adventure then it will take a bit more work to find out what you need to do. Well use a common example of crew on a private vessel. Recreational Boating is a common entry point into the commercial side of the industry. Many positions for crew are offered each year and some in exotic destinations can be a satisfying way to travel and still generate income. Almost all of these crew positions require STCW certification at a minimum. In order to reduce insurance costs and assure the safety of the vessel and passengers everyone working aboard must be STCW certified. The skills of STCW are the very basics but compromise some of the most important training a sailor will receive in their career. If you cannot determine what the exact qualifications are needed for the job look for some equivalent vessels and compare minimum qualifications. Schools can offer some advice too. Step 3: Identify a Training Location This is easy since there is only one option these days. In the past, an STCW certification could be gained on experience alone. Today the opposite is true, all of the training takes place in the classroom and occasionally demonstrated in the field. If you are new to boats you may want to look for a course that is hands-on and offers some time on the water. Hands-on courses are more expensive but worth it if you dont have significant practical experience. For some employers, a course with real-world conditions may take the place of some sea hours. The cost of any of these courses is significant and in places like the United States, the cost to obtain some certifications is even higher due to extra security measures. Look around, know what sort of product you are shopping for, read reviews, talk to potential employers; you may need to travel but that can be included in expenses if you are receiving financial aid. Financial aid can be used for maritime education and most schools make that process as easy as possible for potential students. Step Four: Obtain Experience This is the most important step of all. There are many graduates of STCW programs that have no job experience and wonder why they cant get that job in the Mediterranean. Simple, those jobs go to tested STCW graduates. Get any job you can that gives you some time on the water that can be documented. Maybe your area only has a short tourist season and local jobs produce few hours every year. Take those few hours, have your employer document them, and include them on your resume or CV.

Analysis of qualitative research article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Analysis of qualitative research article - Essay Example Inappropriate assessment of patients by nurses may result in high incidences of suicide. Both qualitative and quantitative assessment methods are available for use and the method used may be depend on the setting. Purpose The purpose of the research was to understand how nurses conceptualize suicide among patients in addition to the strategies they use in the process of assessment. Due to the emerging trends in suicide assessment inappropriate assessment might fail to pick potential suicide patients. Research design and research tradition The traditional phenomenography which analyses the different ways in which people experience, conceptualize, identify, and familiarize themselves with various aspects of phenomena in the world around them was used in this study. This method is frequently used in health care research and was utilized in an inductive, qualitative and descriptive approach to help understand the conceptualizations of suicide by psychiatric nurses and the strategies that psychiatric nurses utilize when conducting a suicide evaluation. Sampling A convenience/snowball sampling method was utilized in the study to recruit six psychiatric-mental health nurse participants for the ten months study period. The participants were obtained from two advanced practice nurses agencies in different psychiatric settings and different Northeastern states with the help of nurse managers. One of the settings chosen was a psychiatric hospital's emergency assessment unit while the other was an inpatient psychiatric unit of a general hospital. Five of the six participating nurses were females with four of them having more than 15 years experience while the fifth had nine months experience as a psychiatric mental health nurse and more than five years experience as a mental health worker. The sixth participant was a male nurse with more than 15 years experience. All the participants were white with one having a master’s degree in nursing, three with bachelorâ€℠¢s degree and two with associate degrees in nursing. Data collection The research methods used for data collection were approved by the University of Rhode Island’s Institutional Review Board. Before data collection began consent was sought from both the participating nurses and the patients. The inclusion criteria for the patients included more than 18 years of age, ability to understand and speak English in addition to giving informed consent. The patients were also informed that their participation or non participation in the research would not affect the care they received from the institution. The data in this study was mainly obtained through interviews with the psychiatric nurses after suicide assessment of adult patients. The assessment sessions varied from between 15 minutes to one and a half hours among different patients. The interviews with the psychiatric nurses were recorded in a private room and were guided by a few questions. The nurses were however allowed to express their perceptions, in a clear and systematic manner, of how they conceptualize suicide and the strategies they use in the suicide assessment process. In a bid to obtain as much information and as possible the participating nurses were encouraged to think out aloud, deliberate, and even to pause before answering the questions if they need to. All the participating

Business ownership and global business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business ownership and global business - Essay Example All the three forms of companies have their own benefits and risks. However sole proprietorship appears to be more risky as the owner is totally liable for every debt or loss incurred by the company. Limited Liability Company has some characteristics of sole trader and some of corporations as it is a limited liability company but a flow-through entity which means not subject to taxation up to some extent. Usually single owners choose this type of company to get rid of tedious paperwork required in other forms of companies. I think co-operative structure will be appropriate for this organization as it will help them to bring a wider platform in terms of financing and other resources. It also brings more knowledge and expertise to the organization. The company is totally run by the owner by his own self with out any other partner or director so in this form of business, the owner is not only limited in terms of ideas and knowledge but also monetary resources. The owner should think to delegate some powers and duties by getting other stakeholders in the company to extend the scope of business. A Limited liability company can also be limited in terms of financing sources. The owner, if not willing to change the ownership structure, opt to open branches of his business in other cities by replicating the same operations administered by local branch managers. He may choose to outsource some of the operations to other companies to get expert output. Tariffs and duties may affect the global business negatively. Higher rates of custom duties and taxes usually discourage buyers to import from other countries and they prefer to buy locally. The governments may take measures of decreasing such tariffs in order to encourage global

Comparative Literature Translation St Essay Example for Free

Comparative Literature Translation St Essay 452? F 132 Abstract || The link between Comparative Literature and translation creates a new reading framework that challenges the classic approach to translation, and allows the widening of the scope of the translated text. This paper explores this relationship through the analysis of two versions of Charles Baudelaire’s Les ? eurs du mal published in Argentina during the 20th century, stressing the nature of translation as an act of rewriting. Keywords || Comparative literature | Translation | Rewriting | Charles Baudelaire 133 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen Santiago Venturini  452? F. #04 (2011). 131-141. 0. Comparative literature and translation: a reading framework There are at least two ways to conceive the link between comparative literature and translation studies. Exchanging the terms in the framework of an inclusion relationship, it is possible to consider two differentiated series of questions and to assign different scopes to the link. This exchange appears basically related to the two possible answers to the question about the limits of these disciplines, that are traditionally linked: so, it is possible to consider translation studies asâ€Å"one of the traditional areas of comparatism† (Gramuglio,   2006) or to support, as Susan Bassnett did more than a decade ago (1993), the need for a reversal to happen –similar to the one Roland Barthes established between semiology and linguistics–, to make translation studies stop constituting a minor ? eld of comparative literature in order to be the major discipline that shelters it (solution through which Bassnett tried to put an end to what he de? ned as the â€Å"un? nished long debate† on the status of the discipline of comparative literature, empowered by the criticism blow that Rene Wellek gave to the discipline in 1958)1. Beyond this ambiguity, what is important to underline is the existence of this consolidated link between two disciplines, or I should rather say, between the discipline of comparative literature(s) and the phenomenon of translation –which, on the other hand, de? ned itself as the object of a speci? c discipline barely some decades ago–. In this sense, there is a spontaneous way of thinking about the link between comparative literature and translation: the one that de? nes translation as an event and a central practice for comparatism, since it locates itself at the meeting point of different languages, literatures  and cultures. From this point of view, translation is the activity which is â€Å"synthetic† par excellence, the one that operates at the very intersection of languages and poetics, and the one that makes possible, because of its ful? lment, the ful? lment of other analytic approaches to the texts relating to each other. Nevertheless, this has not always been this way. In an article devoted to the vicissitudes of this link, Andre Lefevere pointed out that, in the beginning, comparative literature had to face a double competence: the study of classical literatures and the study of national literatures,  and that it chose to sacri? ce ranslation â€Å"on the altar of academic respectability, as it was de? ned at the moment of its origin†2. And, although translation became necessary for the discipline, it hardly tried to move beyond the comparison between European literatures, all the translations were made, criticized and judged, adopting the inde? nable parameter of â€Å"accuracy†, that â€Å"corresponds to the use made of translation in education, of classical literatures as well as of NOTES 1 | Bassnett asserts that: â€Å"The ? eld of comparative literature has always claimed the studies on translation as a sub? eld, but now, when the  last ones are establishing themselves, for their part, ?rmly as a discipline based on the intercultural study, offering as well a methodology of a certain rigor, both in connection with the theoretical work and with the descriptive one, the moment has come in which comparative literature has not such an appearance to be a discipline on its own, but rather to constitute a branch of something else† (Bassnett, 1998: 101). 2 | â€Å"In order to establish the right to its own academic territory, comparative literature abdicated the study of what it should have been, precisely, an important part of its effort†Ã‚  (Lefevere, 1995: 3). 134 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. national literatures† (Lefevere, 1995: 4). The critical thinking of the XXth century conferred translation the transcendence it had not had historically and postulated it as a clearly- de? ned object of study. Although this emancipation was achieved already in the second half of the century, it is clear that there are crucial contemporary texts about practices previous to this period. In this sense, the preface by Walter Benjamin to his German translation  of the Tableaux Parisiens by Charles Baudelaire, entitled â€Å"The Task of the Translator† (1923), constitutes an unavoidable contribution that, nevertheless, has not always been appraised. A lot has been said on this text –let’s remind the readings, canonical, by Paul De Man (1983) and by Jacques Derrida (1985)–, whose formulations were decisive for a conceptualization of translation the way it was presented some decades later by post-structuralism. Let’s recover, at least, one of the ideas that organize this document: â€Å"No translation would be possible if its supreme aspiration would be similarity with the original. Because in its survival –that should not be called this way unless it means the evolution and the renovation all living things have to go through– the original is modi? ed† (Benjamin, 2007: 81). Through this proposition, that can seem obvious to the contemporary reader, Benjamin emphasizes, in the twenties, the inevitable inventive nature of any translation and destroys the conception of the translated text as a copy or a reproduction of the original, although without attacking the dichotomical pair original/translation, â€Å"distinction that Benjamin will never renounce nor devote some questions to† (Derrida, 1985). A renunciation that will be carried out, as Lawrence Venuti points out, by the poststructuralist thought –especially deconstruction–,that again raised the question in a radical way of the traditional topics of the theory of translation through the dismantling of the hierarchical relationship between the â€Å"original† and the â€Å"translation† through notions such as â€Å"text†. In the poststructuralist thought â€Å"original† and â€Å"translation† become equals, they hold the same heterogeneous and unstable nature of any text, and they organize themselves from several linguistic and cultural materials that destabilize the work of signi?  cation (Venuti, 1992: 7). From this acknowledgment, we recover a synthetic Derridean formula: â€Å"There is nothing else but original text† (1997: 533). Thus, translation stopped being an operation of transcription in order to be an operation of productive writing, of re-writing in which what is written is not anymore the weight of the foreign text as a monumental structure, but a representation of this text: that is, an invention. It is not anymore a question of transferring a linguistic and cultural con? guration to another one a stable meaning –as happens with the platonic and positivist conceptions of the meaning that,  according to Maria Tymoczko, are still operating in the education and 135 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. training of translators in the West (Tymoczko, 2008: 287-288)–, but a practice of creation that writes a reading, an ideological practice accomplished not only by the translator –that becomes now an active agent and not a mere â€Å"passer of sense† (Meschonnic, 2007)–, but by a whole machinery of importation that covers outlines, comments, preliminary studies, criticism, etc.  , and in which a variety of ? gures are involved. In these new coordinates, translation can be de? ned as a practice that is â€Å"manipulative†, if it models an image of the authors and of the foreign texts from patterns of their own: â€Å"Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. Any rewriting, whatever its intention, re? ects a particular ideology and particular poetics, and as such, they manipulate literature in order to make it work in a particular society, in a particular way† (Lefevere and Bassnett in Gentlzer, 1993: IX). This quote reproduces the already famous assertion by Theo Hermans: â€Å"From the point of view of the target literature, any translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text with a particular purpose. Besides, translation represents a crucial example of what happens in the relationship between different linguistic, literary and cultural codes† (1985: 11-12). To assume the status that we have just conferred to translation implies to re-shape the link between this later and comparative literature. Because when it stops being de? ned in the restrictive terms of mediation or transfer of the stable meaning of an â€Å"original† text, and when it attains the autonomy of an act of rewriting of another  text according to an ideology, a series of aesthetic guidelines and of representations on otherness, translation gives up its role of instrumental practice and appears as the privileged practice that condenses a rank of questions and problematic issues related to the articulations greater than what is national and transnational, vernacular and foreign. Translation becomes the event related to contrastive linguistics par excellence; the key practice of what Nicolas Rosa calls the â€Å"comparative semiosis†: La relacion entre lo nacional y lo transnacional, y la implicacion subversiva  entre lo local y lo global pasa por un contacto de lenguas, y por ende, por el fenomeno de la traduccion en sus formas de transliteracion, transcripcion y reformulacion de  «lenguas » y  «estilos ». La traduccion, en todas sus formas, de signo a signo, de las relaciones inter-signos, o de universo de discurso a universo de discurso es el fenomeno mas relevante de lo que podriamos llamar una  «semiosis comparativa » (Rosa, 2006: 60-61). 1. Two Argentinean versions of the spleen by Baudelaire Once the approach to translation that we favour in this work is speci? ed, what we intend now is to re? ect on the particular case of  136 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. the Argentinean translations of Les ? eurs du mal (1857) by Charles Baudelaire. We will focus on two comprehensive translations of Les ?eurs du mal, and two very different publications: the one that can be de? ned as the inaugural translation of Baudelaire in Argentina, carried out by the female poet Nydia Lamarque –published by the publishing house Losada in 1948 and reprinted numerous times to date–, and the one signed by Americo Cristofalo for the Colihue  Clasica collection from the publishing house Colihue, published originally in 2006, and that appears as the last link of the chain of Argentinean translations. The difference between the date of publication of the translation by Nydia Lamarque –belated, if we take into account that a ? rst translation to Spanish, incomplete, came out in 19053– and the one by Americo Cristofalo, reports the currency of the name of Charles Baudelaire along the lines of translations of French poetry in Argentina; name that, next to the names of Stephane Mallarme and Arthur Rimbaud – the founder triad of modern French poetry– survives through different  decades4. What interests us now is to try out a cross-reading of the poems by Baudelaire and the rewritings by Nydia Lamarque and Americo Cristofalo. We will not use the comparison according to the frequent use that has been given to it in the study of translations, that is, as a method to reveal a collection of translation strategies implemented in each case with the purpose of identifying â€Å"diversions† with regard to the original. As Andre Lefevere has pointed out, to think about a new relationship between comparative literature and translation implies to set aside the approach with regulations, the one that pretends to  differentiate between â€Å"good† translations and â€Å"bad† translations, to concentrate on other questions, such as the search of the reasons that make some translations having been or being very in? uential in the development of certain cultures and literatures (Lefevere, 1995: 9). In this sense, what we intend is to read the sequence of these texts, with the purpose of demonstrating dissimilar ways of articulation with the Baudelairean poetics, two rewritings that take shape as different forms of literary writing in which the vernacular and the foreign are linked, and that are backed up by an ideology. In order to do this, we are going to con? ne our analysis to one of the poems entitled â€Å"Spleen† that is included in one of the ? ve sections that structure Les ? eurs du mal: â€Å"Spleen and Ideal†. Walter Benjamin pointed out that the Baudelairean spleen â€Å"shows life experience in its nakedness. The melancholic sees with terror that the earth relapses into a merely natural state. It does not exhale any halo of prehistory. Nor any aura† (1999: 160). In this sense, the spleen marks the death of the character of idealism â€Å"either of enlightened or NOTES 3 | We are talking about the translation by the Spaniard. Eduardo Marquina, a version marked by modernist aesthetic conventions. As Antonio Bueno Garcia has pointed out, the translation of the works by Charles Baudelaire in Spain is a fact that takes place belatedly, not due to ignorance of the writers of that period –for whom Baudelaire was a recognized in? uence– but for â€Å"the censorship problems of the second half of the XIXth century†. Garcia gets even to declare that, over and above the translation by Marquina at the beginning of the XXth century and two more versions published in the forties, â€Å"the restoration of Baudelaire’s spirit and therefore of his works  does not take place until after the Second World War, and in Spain until well into the seventies† (Bueno Garcia, 1995). 4 | Besides the two translations that we tackle in this work, we can take again the prose translation of Las ? ores del mal signed by Ulises Petit de Murat (1961) and the presence of Baudelaire in anthologies like Poetas franceses contemporaneos (Ediciones Buenos Aires: Librerias Fausto, 1974) or Poesia francesa del siglo XIX: Baudelaire, Mallarme, Rimbaud (Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de America Latina, 1978), both of them prepared by the poet Raul Gustavo Aguirre. 137 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. lyrical and romantic education† (Cristofalo in Baudelaire, 2005: 15), and exposes him to emptiness. In the framework of Baudelairean poetics, ideal and spleen appear as two values which ubiquity has a profound impact both on the sphere of an ideology of poetry, and on the verbalization and the textual organization –as long as both have a clear linguistic scope–: â€Å"Sometimes he believes, and sometimes he does not; sometimes he rises with the ideal, and sometimes hefalls to piec es into the spleen [†¦] It is easy to observe the poems that come from these two opposite perspectives† (Balakian, 1967: 50). In the chain of the poem, ideal and spleen mark, respectively, the victory of what Bonnefoy calls â€Å"poetic alchemy†, of its dynamics, of its operation, but also the movement of its withdrawal or its retreat, the contradiction of the poetic rhetoric with what is perceived further away: it is the meeting of poetry with nothingness, that happens, nevertheless, inside the corroborated possibility of the poem –there is no material failure of poetry in Baudelaire–. De Campos points  out that: el rasgo estilisticamente revolucionario de esos poemas estaria en el dispositivo de choque engendrado por el uso de la palabra prosaica y urbana [†¦] en ? n, por el desenmascaramiento critico que senala la  «sensacion de modernidad » como perdida de la  «aureola » del poeta,  «disolucion del aura en la vivencia del choque » (De Campos, 2000: 36). So, the usual lyrical vocabulary faces up to unusual â€Å"allegorical† quotes, which burst in the text in the style of an â€Å"act of violence† (2000: 36). Ideal and spleen mark the comparison of the consonant and the dissonance, of the romantic poetical rhetoric, of its power of evocation and transcendence, with a more austere rhetoric, of prosaic nature, that undermines the poetization through the imposition in the text of another movement, negative (the negative is read in terms of the contesting of a consolidated representation of the poetic). A ? rst reading of the translations by Nydia Lamarque and Americo Cristofalo makes it possible to observe that we are talking about writings ruled by two completely different â€Å"poetic rhetorics†5, which in the translation framework are based on a combination of decisions that determine the rewriting of the source-language text. These  rhetorics are assumed and stated explicitly by each of the translators in this paratextual mechanism that is relevant to any translation, set up in order to justify what has been carried out, to try and specify its exact sense, to protect it: the introduction. So, in her introduction, Nydia Lamarque, in order to explain her actions, turns to two masters: Holderlin and Chateaubriand. From the second one –translator of Paradise Lost by Milton into French–, the female translator extracts her translation methodology, that she summarizes in one precise formula: â€Å"To trace Baudelaire’s poems NOTES 5 | As Noe Jitrik points out, the  poem is a place, a material support on which certain operations are carried out that are â€Å"governed by rhetoric, in both a limited sense of rhetoric –strict rules and conventions– as in a wide sense –the obedience to or the subversion to the rules– and even pretentions or attempts of â€Å"non-rhetoric†, which effect, operatively speaking, is, nevertheless, the identi? cation of a text as a poem† (Jitrik, 2008: 63). 138 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. on a glass† (in Baudelaire, 1947: 39), which implies the search for  an isomorphism between the original and the translation, the lexical, syntactic, metrical isomorphism. More than a half century later, after the pioneering translation by Lamarque, Americo Cristofalo builds an academic reading and develops more complex hypotheses. He maintains that his translation is built up on the basis of two conjectures: the ? rst one, that metrics and rhyme â€Å"are not strictly bearers of sense† (Cristofalo in Baudelaire, 2006: XXVI) and the second one, the exposition of the double con? ict about the Baudelairean rhythms: Del lado del Ideal: la retorica poetizante, los mecanismos prosodicos, la  desustanciacion adjetiva, los hechizos de la lirica. Del lado del Spleen: tension hacia la prosa, aliento sustantivo, una corriente baja, material, de choque critico (2006: XXVII). Taking into account these positions, we can get back the ? rst verses of one of the poems of â€Å"Spleen† to know what we are talking about: 1. J’ai plus de souvenirs que si j’avais mille ans. 2. Un gros meuble a tiroirs encombre de bilans, 3. De vers, de billets doux, de proces, de romances, 4. Avec de lourds cheveux roules dans des quittances, 5. Cache moins de secrets que mon triste cerveau. 6. C’est un pyramide, un immense caveau, 7.  qui contient plus de morts que la fosse commune. (Charles Baudelaire) 1. Yo tengo mas recuerdos que si tuviera mil anos. 2. Un arcon atestado de papeles extranos, 3. de cartas de amor, versos, procesos y romances, 4. con pesados cabellos envueltos en balances, 5. menos secretos guarda que mi triste cabeza. 6. Es como una piramide, como una enorme huesa, 7. con mas muertos que la comun fosa apetece. (Nydia Lamarque) 139 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. 1. Tengo mas recuerdos que si hubiera vivido mil anos. 2. Un gran mueble con cajones llenos de cuentas, 3. versos, cartitas de amor, procesos, romances, 4. sucios pelos enredados en recibos, 5. guarda menos secretos que mi triste cabeza. 6. Es una piramide, una sepultura inmensa 7. que contiene mas muertos que una fosa comun. (Americo Cristofalo) The comparison allows us to notice the distinctive characteristics of each translation. In the case of Lamarque, the metrical imperative is conditional on all the other choices and has a direct impact on the intelligibility of the verses. The syntax gets more complicated – hyperbatons predominate–, the organization of the sense of the verse is compromised, new lexemes are added and some are suppressed in order to hold the rhyme patterns. We are not trying to cast a shadow on this translation –to which we have to admit its statute of inaugural work–, but we are interested in showing its contradiction, since the translation by Lamarque ends up obtaining quite the opposite of what he enunciated as his mandate: â€Å"Each word has to be respected and reproduced as things that do not belong to us† (Lamarque in Baudelaire, 1947: 39). As far as he is concerned, Americo Cristofalo, who in the introduction to his translation goes through the previous versions –among them is  the translation by Lamarque6–, gives up the rhyme, which allows him to carry out a work of rewriting closer to the French text: the verses are, syntactically, less complex than those in Lamarque version, clearer. Cristofalo builds a poem governed by another rhetoric, stripped of all those â€Å"processes of poetization† that appear in the translation by Lamarque, although someone could wonder if the elimination of rhyme in his translation does not imply, partly, the loss of this tension between ideal and spleen that characterizes Baudelairean poetics. But in order to appreciate what Lamarque and Cristofalo do with the  Baudelairean spleen (tedium, for Cristofalo; weariness, for Lamarque), it is enough to concentrate on only one of the aforementioned verses, the fourth one, which we mention now isolated: †¦Avec de lourds cheveux roules dans des quittances (Baudelaire) †¦con pesados cabellos envueltos en balances (Lamarque) †¦sucios pelos enredados en recibos (Cristofalo) A metonymic verse that with its minimum length shows the best of each translation. The lexical selection displays two completely different records: Lamarque produces a more solemn verse, leant NOTES 6 | Cristofalo maintains that the translation by Nydia Lamarque resembles the one  by Eduardo Marquina, whom she condemns: â€Å"Lamarque [†¦] bitterly complains about the unfaithfulness of Marquina, who chooses symmetrical poetic measures –otherwise he thinks he would not respect the original–, she says she maintains the prosody, the rhyme, she says she is scrupulous about the adjectivation. However, the effect of pomp, of conceit and affectation in the tone is the same, the same dominion of procedures of poetization, and of confused articulation of a meaning† (Cristofalo in Baudelaire, 2006: XXV). 140 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen Santiago Venturini  452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. on a delicate, subtle image, a verse with a modernist ? avour (â€Å"heavy hair wrapped in accounts†); whereas Cristofalo destroys any effect of poeticity in this direction. He simpli? es the lexical selection (â€Å"dirty hairs† instead of â€Å"heavy hair†) and he builds a harsher image, in a realist style. Both translations strengthen the Baudelairean image, but in opposite directions: Lamarque leads it towards a lyrical intensity, Cristofalo makes it more prosaic. There are other questions that can be appreciated in the cross-reading of these poems, for example the presence of a repeated pattern in the  version by Lamarque, boudoir, (that Cristofalo translates as tocador or dressing table), which expresses a whole attitude towards the foreign language; we see the same contrast in the lexical choices, that apart from being bound to the aesthetic reconstruction of the poem, marks re-elaborations that are different from the Baudelairean images, as in the case of this verse: †¦un granit entoure d’une vague epouvante (Baudelaire) †¦una granito rodeado de un espanto inconsciente (Lamarque) †¦una piedra rodeada por una ola de espanto (Cristofalo) Here, Nydia Lamarque and Americo Cristofalo carry out a grammatical  reading that is different from the alliance â€Å"vague epouvante†: Lamarque inclines herself towards an abstract image (she interprets vague as an adjective of epouvante), whereas the image on which Cristofalo bases himself has something of a maritime snapshot (he interprets vague as a noun: wave), it is more referential. Both these works of rewriting grant to the Baudelairean text a different scope; they assemble two images by Baudelaire that respond to conventions and aesthetic values that are also differentiated. In this way, they do nothing but demonstrating the true nature of the translative act. Even if it is true and undeniable that we are talking, all the time, about the translation of a previous text, pre-existing –of an â€Å"original†Ã¢â‚¬â€œ, it is also true and undeniable that translation is a deeply critical and creative practice, that exceeds the borders of the reproduction of a text –its forms move from appropriation to subversion–, a practice that in the passage of a text to another shows all the thickness of its power. . 141 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. Works cited BALAKIAN, A.  (1969): El movimiento simbolista. Juicio critico. Trad. de Jose Miguel Velloso, Madrid: Guardarrama. BASSNETT, S. (1998):  «? Que signi? ca Literatura Comparada hoy?  » en Romero Lopez, D. (comp. ), Orientaciones en Literatura Comparada. Trad. de Cistina Naupert, Madrid: Arco, 87- 101. BAUDELAIRE, Ch. (1999): Las ? ores del mal. Trad. de Eduardo Marquina, Madrid: JM ediciones. BAUDELAIRE, Ch. (2006): Las ? ores del mal. Trad. y prologo de Nydia Lamarque, Buenos Aires: Losada. BAUDELAIRE, Ch. (1980): Les ? eurs du mal. Ed. de Vincenette Pichois, Paris: Union Generale d’Editions. BAUDELAIRE, Ch. (2006): Las ?  ores del mal. Trad. , prologo y notas de Americo Cristofalo, Buenos Aires: Colihue. BAUDELAIRE, Ch. (2005): Correspondencia General. Traduccion y notas de Americo Cristofalo y Hugo Savino, Buenos Aires: Paradiso. BENJAMIN, W. (1999): Iluminaciones II. Poesia y capitalismo. Traduccion y prologo de Jesus Aguirre, Madrid: Taurus. BENJAMIN, W. (2007): Conceptos de ? losofia de la historia. Trad. de Hector Murena, La Plata: Terramar. BONNEFOY, Y. (2007): Lugares y destinos de la imagen. Un curso de poetica en el College de France (1981-1993). Trad. de Silvio Mattoni, Buenos Aires: El cuenco de Plata. BUENO GARCIA, A. (1995):  «Les ? eurs du mal de Baudelaire: historia de su traduccion, historia de la estetica », en Lafarga et. al. (coords. ), Actas del III Coloquio de la Asociacion de Profesores de Filologia Francesa de la Universidad Espanola (APFFUE), Barcelona: Promociones y Publicaciones Universitarias: 263-272 DE CAMPOS, H. (2000): De la razon antropofagica (y otros ensayos). Trad. y prologo de Rodolfo Mata, Mexico: Siglo XXI. DERRIDA, J. (1997): La diseminacion. Trad. de Jose Martin Arancibia), Madrid: Espiral. DERRIDA, J. (1985):  «Des tours de Babel », Derrida en castellano, [13/08/2010], http://www. jacquesderrida. com. ar/frances/tours_babel. htm GENTZLER, E. (1993): Contemporary Translation Theories, New York: Routledge. GRAMUGLIO, M. T. (2006):  «Tres problemas para el comparatismo », Orbis Tertius, [04/08/2010], http://www. orbistertius. unlp. edu. ar/numeros/numero-12/2-gramuglio. pdf HERMANS, T. (1985): The Manipulation of Literature, London Sidney: Croom Helm. JITRIK, N. (2008): Conocimiento, retorica, procesos. Campos discursivos, Buenos Aires: Eudeba. LEFEVERE, A. (1995):  «Comparative Literature and Translation », Comparative Literature, 1, vol. XLVII, 1-10 MESCHONNIC, H.(2007): La poetica como critica del sentido. Trad. de Hugo Savino, Buenos Aires: Marmol/Izquierdo. ROSA, N. (2006): Relatos Criticos. Cosas animales discursos, Buenos Aires: Santiago Arcos. TYMOCZKO, M. (2008):  «Translation, ethics and ideology in the age of globalization » en Camps, A. y Zybatow, L. (eds. ), Traduccion e interculturalidad, Bruselas: Peter Lang, 285-302. VENUTI, L. (1992): Rethinking Translation, USA y Canada: Routledge. WILFERT, B.  «Cosmopolis et l’homme invisible. Les importateurs de literature etrangere en France, 1885-1914 », Actes de la Recherche Sociale, 144, 33-46.

Charlie Gordon :: essays research papers

Charlie Gordon is the main character of Flowers for Algernon. Charlie is a mentally retarded, 33 year old adult. He desperately wants to be smart, especially after a very troubled childhood in a family who had a hard time adapting to his illness. Charlie has a great attitude about changing his life, and was willing to do whatever it took to accomplish the task of becoming smart. Charlie partakes in a surgery to boost his intelligence that has only been tested on rats, specifically one named Algernon. After the surgery Charlie learned that the grass isn’t always greener on the other side, and that many of his old friends wouldn’t see the same person in him. Charlie suddenly had to experience drastic changes in his lifestyle and the story revolves around these complications.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Charlie’s story began with the surgery, the biggest decision he made in his life. Although he was a guinea pig in the procedure, he wasn’t worried at all about the surgery, but rather on becoming smart as fast as he could. Supposedly these doctors were doing Charlie the greatest favor he would ever receive, and he was so eager to learn as much as he could. Soon however, Charlie would encounter challenges he never faced with the intelligence of a 6 year old. Before his surgery, Charlie had great friends in Miss Kinnian and the bakery workers. After the surgery the relationships between Charlie and everyone he knew would take a drastic turn.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A growing problem of Charlie’s is his extremely mixed emotions toward the opposite sex. He starts a serious relationship with Alice Kinnian, his former teacher. Charlie begins to learn of how society treats the mentally retarded. He realizes his old friends at the bakery just make fun of him. After watching the audience laugh at video of him before the operation, Charlie runs away from a mental health conference with Algernon after learning that his operation went wrong. Charlie does research on himself and learns that intelligence without the ability to give and receive affection leads to mental and moral breakdown.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In many ways Charlie was better before the operation. With his simple minded approach to life e was able to live happily with out problems or difficulties that we face in relationships today. Although he was never smart, Charlie was a good person before the surgery.

Racism Against Native Americans and African Americans Essay

Racism against Native Americans and African Americans Sometimes I imagine that racial diversity would be a boon to human kind if there was no such thing called â€Å"racial hatred†. Now if you tell me that if there was only one kind of race then I will tell you that if all roses were red then what you would have given for a funeral? My point is that diversity is what makes this world keep going amusingly and these notions of race and ethnicities as big and small, upper class and lower class, superior and inferior are just mere perspectives. In my opinion there is only one kind of race and that is â€Å"Human Kind† and we all are doing these buzzes because we lack unity in diversity. There are no race-specific DNA traits which demonstrate my view that racism is social but not biological. From the Roman Empire to today’s ultra modern age, from Hitler to Osama Bin Laden, and from Thomas Jefferson to Rev. Jeremiah Wright; people never forget to show this acquired sense of racism. Why I called it acquired? Because a white man is not born to hate black or a black man is not born to hate white. But we are the mere appointee of this prejudiced perspective we have been taught by our family, neighborhood, and society for years and years. Society has never been able to get away from this prejudice but we pretend like we don’t care about it calling ourselves trans-racial society but I doubt the truthfulness of our intention. Why? Because the ghosts of our bitter experience of racism either towards Native Americans or towards African Americans keep on haunting us with the events like one in Rosebud and Pine Ridge counties in South Dakota or even worse event like â€Å"Jena 6† in Louisiana. It looks like this thing will go on and on unless the elimination of social prejudice to â€Å"judge people by color but not the content of character† they have as MLK used to say. But I have to be optimistic that we have been able to institutionalize this racial discrimination by creating Civil Rights Act which prohibits the discriminatory treatment in employment decisions on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. You have posed a very important question in the lecture that- How is that so much discrimination exists, when there are laws to protect it? The Jena 6† incident answers this query because a person who is obliged to protect the juveniles start treating them on the basis of their skin color clearly demonstrates that the laws are very weak and vague to protect one as a free citizen. I think that race is not a problem here but racism is the problem. When we use the terms race and color why it does directly applies to blacks and browns which makes me think that whites are the â€Å"status quo† of all races. As you have mentioned in the lecture that the history of the Native Americans often gets overlooked is true because the act of ethnic cleansing by the white European settlers was kind of victory to them but I actually consider it an inhumane act. And the act of Americanizing the Native Americans is an invasion of culture and norms which is the true color of a colonist. The racist images and stereotypes by the European Americans against the Native Americans as explained by the authors in chapter 6 clearly proves the â€Å"Dominant Rules† slogan. Recently, the whole world seemed obsessed talking about president Obama. Why? Because he gained astonishing success in his short political career or he is a very skilled orator or he is a very intelligent man who was also the president of prestigious Harvard Law Review. I think these are superficial reasons but the real reason is that he is the first black president in the history of United States. Anybody who runs for president should be a good orator, intelligent, and smart but Obama gained much more buzz than usual because he broke the â€Å"status-quo† as I have mentioned earlier. The black neighborhoods are generally considered poor and the white neighborhoods rich. These patters of thinking have the general consequence of institutionalizing racism in terms of poverty. The stereotype that young black men are criminals and drug abusers has further ghettoized the African- American community and has destroyed any possibility for normal family and community relations. As a result it has contributed in the disruption of the family, prevalence of more single parents, children raised without a father in the ghetto. Inability of these people to get jobs has further complicated the living standard of the people. If you are from the Boston area, it’s no surprise that there are more shootings and stabbings in Dorchester and Roxbury than Newton and Beacon Hill. So, it sends a wrong message that young black men are violent and hostile. The place where I was born and raised never had racial problem but immense ethnic and caste problem. The south Asian countries are in great turmoil of caste exploitation and ethnic exploitation which I think is new to most Americans. So, it’s very interesting for me to draw the comparisons in between racial and ethnic exploitation in terms of power. Usually, the higher castes dominate the lower castes and virtually enslave them for their benefits. The lower castes are regarded â€Å"Untouchables† which I think is an evil and the ugliest form of humanity. In case of race, I think discrimination and privilege portrays the power. At the individual level someone who is an advantaged member of a disadvantaged group could discriminate against someone less privileged than him/her or against someone with less power from a privileged group and at the institutional level that cannot happen because it is the groups in power who do the discrimination.

Founder-Ceo Succession at Wily Technology

Founder-CEO Succession at Wily Technology Lew Cirne sat stunned in his chair, digesting what Richard Williams had just proposed. As the founder, CEO, and chairman of Wily Technology, Cirne (pronounced â€Å"Ser-nee†) had worked hard to build the skills necessary to lead a start-up, had developed Wily’s early technology single-handedly, had hired 50 employees to help him build the company, and had successfully spearheaded a strategic transformation of the company.He had led the company to the point where he had convinced several important customers to buy WiIy’s flagship product and had successfully raised two rounds of financing from top investors. ?Cirne ,  · ,CEO, ,Cirne( â€Å"? -NEE†) , , , Wily , 50 , , , ,? WiIy , However, after the last round of financing, at the behest of Wily’s lead venture capitalist, Cirne had agreed to give up his CEO position and step down to CTO and had helped find and recruit Williams to take over the CEO position.N ow, as the last condition before he would accept the job as Wily’s CEO, Williams Wanted Cirne to also give up the chairman position that Cirne had held since Wily’s founding. As he stared out the window, Cirne wondered how he should react: â€Å"Just how much am I going to have to give up to make this thing a success? When is it too much? Is this step i going over the line? † As he thought back through Wily’s history, he also wondered what he could have done differently to avoid having to step down so soon as Wily’s CEO. , ,Cirne CEO , ,CTO, CEO ,Wily? CEO, , Cirne ,? Cirne Wily ,Cirne :â€Å" † , Wily , , Wily? CEO Early Years Lew Cirne grew up in rural southern Ontario, Canada, the only child of worIreminisced: †I played a lot of hockey when I was growing up. I was a goalie_l used to play way out of the net, taking obscene risks to get to the puck. It’s a very entrepreneurial position.When I wasn’t in the hockey rink or at music rehearsal, I was programming. My mom loves to say that she got me a Commodore PC when I was 12 and that she hasn't seen me since. † ? Cirne , worIreminisced? :â€Å" , goalie_l, , , , , Commodore PC? ,? 12? , , â€Å" Academically, Cirne was a high performer and set his sights on becoming the first from his extended family to go to college. He headed south to New Hampshire, where he attended Dartmouth and majored in computer science.All Dartmouth undergraduates were required to buy and use Apple Computers’ Macintosh PCs, and like many of them, Cirne became a fan of the Macintosh architecture. Each year, several graduates from the department went to work at Apple. One of those people was Jeff Cobb, who was a year ahead of Cirne and had served as a role model for him. After graduating in 1993, Cirne joined Apple, too. His first major project was developing one piece of the operating system for Apple’s Power Macintosh. He recalled: â€Å"That was the easiest project l’ve ever been able to explain to my mom.I was supposed to create the cursor for the Power Macintosh, make the cursor appear on the screen. I could tell her, ‘See that little thing moving around, Mom? I did that! † His next project was Copland, Apple's next-generation operating system. Copland was based on object-oriented technology, and Cirne was assigned to the team working on Copland’s object-oriented user interface. During this project, Cirne learned some technical truths that five years later would be part of the underpinning for the founding vision of his company. Cirne said: ,Cirne , Macintosh , ,Cirne Macintosh ,  · , Cirne, 1993 ,Cirne Power Macintosh :â€Å" L' , Power Macintosh, ,† ,! â€Å" , ,? Cirne ,Cirne ,5 , Cirne? : It was great to work with brilliant, technical people, learning from them how to solve tough technical problems.But even with the most brilliant technology team, no one could explain how the operati ng system as a Whole behaved. Each person knew their own little piece, but no one had the visibility to be able to see the big picture. Without adequate visibility, even the best systems are going to have problems. Part of the epiphany for me was, how can I make this complex, object-oriented software system visible, so we can see how the whole system will perform? I thought, there's an opportunity here to make the potential a reality. , , , , , , , , , , , Cirne loved the technical challenges and †the fact that people came to work excited every day,† but he felt restricted by the narrow specialization his role demanded in such a large company. In addition, he wanted to start building the skills he would need to play a central role in a start-up: †I wanted to learn how to be a founder or an early employee of a new company.I wanted to gain breadth, compared to my more focused role at Apple. † To do so, Cirne wanted to work for a smaller company for two years, after which he planned to leave to start his own company. That month, Cirne got a call from an executive recruiting firm that was trying to hire software engineers for Hummingbird Communications, a small public company. Cirne agreed to meet with Nick Gault, the vice president of corporate development at Hummingbird, who would be his boss there. Gault, who had engineering degrees from Stanford, had founded Common Ground Software.When he was 32 years old, Ga. it had sold his 30-person company to Humrningbird. Cirne said: Cirne â€Å" , , ,† , , , :â€Å" , , â€Å" ,Cirne , , , ,Cirne , , , â€Å" † Cirne ,  · ,? â€Å" †, , , 32 , , 30 Humrningbird? Cirne? : I met with Nick, and the job opportunity fit what I had in mind, between Hummingbirds size and Nick’s background.The company had just hit $100 million in revenues with 350 employees, and Nick would be a great mentor for me. He was a developer turned business-man, just like I wanted to be. I was ve ry up front with Nick, telling him, â€Å"You've had success at starting a company and selling it. I'd like to work for you and learn from you. † , , $100 350 , , , ,â€Å" , † Cirne joined Hummingbird as the lead engineer for its Macintosh product. Culturally, Cirne found Hummingbird quite different from Apple.Apple was a product-driven organization, Hummingbird was sales driven. Apple employees would talk about â€Å"shipping the product,† while Hummingbird employees would talk about †making our quarterly numbers. † Cirne â€Å" † Macintosh ,Cirne â€Å" † , â€Å", †,? â€Å" † â€Å" † Without informing Hummingbird’s headquarters, Gault created a â€Å"skunkworks† project to which he assigned Cirne, with the mandate to rewrite their viewer product in lava, an object-oriented language that was beginning to gain wide acceptance.As he started using the technology, Cirne became impressed. He came to b elieve that companies would start using Java to develop enterprise systems but that those companies would face the same problems Apple had faced in developing Copland: that it would be very hard to knit together all of the individual components into a coherent system that performed and scaled well. Cine said: â€Å" † , â€Å" † , Cirne, , , ,Cirne , Java , , : The more successful lava would be, the more the problems would abound for these companies. It was a belief that came from my personal experiences, both at Apple and at Hummingbird. As I was driving home through the mountains, on a curvy road on the way to Santa Cruz, 1 had a second epiphany: that if I could make the Iava prog. ram â€Å"self-diagnostic,† then I could help those companies solve that problem in a big way. I would solve the problem l had experienced myself. When it hit me, I almost drove off the road.When I got to Santa Cruz, I knew I'd start a company with this idea as a core foundational technology. , , , , , : IAVA prog. ramâ€Å" †, , , , During discussions with Gault, Cirne shared his vision of the potential opportunity he had perceived during his †epiphany,† and Gault helped Cirne understand how potential investors would view his venture, what types of people he should plan to hire to work with him, and a wide variety of other issues.By the time Cirne left Hummingbird, he was leading a team of half a dozen people, managing both the technical and managerial aspects of the effort to develop a ]ava version of Hurnrningbird’s viewer product. ,Cirne , â€Å" †? Gault Cirne , , , Cirne? , , , ] AVA Hurnrningbird Founding Wily

Byzantine Music And Christianity Religion Essay Essays

Byzantine Music And Christianity Religion Essay Essays Byzantine Music And Christianity Religion Essay Paper Byzantine Music And Christianity Religion Essay Paper The methodological analysis I used for my undertaking was some old books and that analyse the three notation systems of Byzantine music. Through those books it was able for me to understand better how the two old notation systems worked and why the New Chrysantine method was the 1 that Christian church still uses. In order to happen the right books I visitedA theA ArchdioceseA ofA my countryA andA I found the right people who address whatA booksA areA suited forA my undertaking and besides if those resources are dependable. For my research I used besides questionnaires because they provide a convenient manner of garnering information from people who deals with Byzantine Music as instructors, Chanters, and pupils. I design a short and simple questionnaire so it holds the respondent s involvement. The end was to do the respondent want to finish the questionnaire. In my questionnaires I had some inquiries about the old Notation systems but besides the new system but besides I had inquiries about their sentiment about Byzantine music and why the Christian Orthodox church is still uses it. Questionnaires were a method that helped me a batch for conclude my consequences and results because the sentiments and besides the cognition of those people was really of import. Internet research was besides a method that I used. Internet, in our yearss is a topographic point that person can happen a broad scope of information. I used specific articles and web pages which I knew that are first of all dependable beginnings. For illustration I used web sites that I knew the certificates of the writer or websites that are merely for Educational proposes as www.grovemusic.com. In the cyberspace I besides found old undertakings from academic people and people who are experts in Byzantine music. Finally I used Byzantine tonss, tabular arraies, entering and Videos in order to understand how Byzantine notations systems plants, but besides to used them as illustrations in my undertaking. Introduction The Roman Empire was divided in Eastern and Western in the late of fifth Century. Byzantium was the capital metropolis of Easter Roman Empire since King Constantine rebuilds the Constantinople, in 330 A.D until 1453 when Ottomans Turks took the City from the Romans. The Eastern Roman Empire survived until 1453 as the Grecian speaking-Byzantine Empire. Byzantine music, took its name from the modern bookmans depicting the Christian Orthodox church music of the Eastern countries of the Roman Empire and besides the tunes from verse forms in honor of the King. The height of Byzantine music starts from the early old ages of Christianity and includes chants and anthem which entreaty to God. Byzantine music plays a important function in Christian church and that is the ground that I want to analyze and compose about it. In my undertaking I am traveling to give a short description of Music and Christianity but besides a description about the first two notation systems of Byzantine music ; and how they work through the analysis of specific tonss. Besides through of tabular arraies I will explicate the tonic system of Byzantine music and the anthem, and chiefly I will concentrate on the new Byzantine notation system or else the Chrysanthosnotation system. I will besides advert the advantages and disadvantages of the three systems of the Byzantine music, and eventually I will compose some consequences and Outcomes through, my survey of Byzantine music. Chapter I BYZANTINE MUSIC AND CHRISTIANITY The metropolis of Byzantium is the country which is in the present called Constantinople. It was rebuilt by Constantine in 330 A.D and was made the capital metropolis of the Eastern Roman Empire. Christianity was besides accepted by the imperial household in the twelvemonth of 312 A.D. However this caused a major rake between the Orthodox people. During the twelvemonth of 395 A.D, they were divided into two imperiums, the Eastern and Western. Each imperium though maintained a different capital metropolis, the Eastern with the Byzantium and the Western with Rome. Consequently the Christian church so adapted features from the Greek speech production universe and other Greek communities which were around the Eastern Mediterranean. As I mentioned earlier, Byzantine music has to make with church music merely. In an cyberspace article for Byzantine music , the writer Dimitri Conomos references that Byzantine music is the medieval sacred chant of Christian Churches following the Orthodox rite. By stating Byzantine Music that includes the anthem, chants and all of their derived functions which have to make with Christianity and chiefly to God, the Son of God, the Virgin Mary and the Saints of Christian churches. Most hymns and psalms describe the life, miracles and the passions of Jesus Christ every bit good as the Saints . David J. Melling, in the internet article of Reading Psalmodia , references that: When Christianity was established as the official faith of the Roman Empire the Church acquired new and glorious edifices for worship. The rites and ceremonials of Imperial Christianity took on the sedateness and the magnificence of tribunal ritual. A rich traditions of hymnography developed, poets, composers and vocalists conveying their accomplishments to the service of the Church. During the first old ages of Christianity the church male parents did non accept the usage of musical instruments holding anything to make with the Church. As Constantinos G. Eliades references in I?I µI »I µI„I ®I?I ±I„I ± I’I†¦I ¶I ±I?I„I?I?I ®I‚ II?I?I »I ·I?I?I ±I?I„I?I?I ®I‚ I?I?I†¦I?I?I?I ®I‚ ( Studies of Byzantine Ecclesiastical Music ) , they believed that the instrumental music was improper and inappropriate for the Orthodoxy. Even though music has the ability to do you experience rather strong feelings, it is felt even more in Christianity because it is the manner in which we can talk to God. However St. Ignatius wrote to the Church in Ephesus in order to do a alteration. His precise words are in an article in an internet web site: You must every adult male of you to fall in in a choir so that being harmonious and in Concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through Jesus Christ to the Father, so the He may hear you and through your good workss recognize that you are parts of His Son . Grigorios Th. Stathis besides mentions in I- I’I†¦I ¶I ±I?I„I?I?I ® I?I?I†¦I?I?I?I ® I?I„I · I »I ±I„I?I µI?I ± I?I ±I? I?I„I ·I? IIˆI?I?I„I ®I?I · , ( Byzantine music in faith and scientific discipline ) , that the usage of music in the church can assist in the approval of people s psyches and a vocal of the church can be associated with coming and praying. Church music is rather a important and serious affair with a true significance for the Christian population. In a Byzantine music cyberspace article, written by Mavraganis Diamantis, he mentions that Byzantine music is considered to be in a manner the continuity of the ancient Grecian music. He states that many characteristics which can be found in ancient Grecian music, such as the graduated tables, the sounds, and the systems are quite common with those found in Byzantine music. Furthermore in I?I µI »I µI„I ®I?I ±I„I ± I’I†¦I ¶I ±I?I„I?I?I ®I‚ II?I?I »I ·I?I?I ±I?I„I?I?I ®I‚ I?I?I†¦I?I?I?I ®I‚ ( Studies of Byzantine Ecclesiastical Music ) , the writer, Constantinos G. Eliades, references that the ancient Grecian music every bit good as the antediluvian Grecian linguistic communication were the first which were used by the Orthodox Church. With the birth of Jesus Christ followed with the spread of Christianity, Greek music easy became known beyond the parturiency of the Grecian universe and moved to the Holy Places and countries of the Byzantine Empire. There, Grecian music was able to spread out, better, develop, since it was affected by different beginnings. Finally it turned into being a wholly s ecclesiastical type music which serves in a manner the spiritual Orthodox people. The grounds why the music of Christianity was Greek are many. Harmonizing to Constantinos G. Eliades, in I?I µI »I µI„I ®I?I ±I„I ± I’I†¦I ¶I ±I?I„I?I?I ®I‚ II?I?I »I ·I?I?I ±I?I„I?I?I ®I‚ I?I?I†¦I?I?I?I ®I‚ ( Studies of Byzantine Ecclesiastical Music ) , some of these grounds are the undermentioned: to get down with all the music has characteristics which originated in Greece, for illustration the half steps every bit good as the systems which were found by Pythagoras the celebrated Grecian Mathematician. Another ground is that the music of the church was written based on the beat of the anthem which was the characteristic beat used in ancient Grecian music. The writer states that this happened because the instrumentalists were either Greeks or they had known ancient Grecian music really good. Chapter two The Byzantine anthem and the different sorts of them The anthem to God were considered to be the oldest musical act towards Him. The Eastern Churches easy developed assorted church acts names Holy Eucharists from topographic points such as Antioch, Alexandria, and Epheus. As Dimitri Comonos references in the cyberspace article for Byzantine music , these topographic points used the single-channel vocal music at the clip. It is besides rather important to advert that Byzantine music had a immense consequence on the Western chant. Byzantine music was the predominate music for a really long clip which besides lasted for more than 13 centuries. Byzantine hymnography was so split into two periods which gave a new rhythmical form to hymnography. During the first period, dated from the fifth century, the kontakion was developed. In the 2nd period, dated from the terminal of the seventh century the chief anthem developed during the period was the kanon . Egon Wellesz, in his book A history of Byzantine Music and hymnography , references that: Byzantine hymnography is the poetical look of Orthodox divinity, translated, through music, to the domain of spiritual emotion. It mirrors the development of the dogmatic thoughts and philosophies of the Orthodox Church from the early yearss of the Eastern Empire to the full luster of the service at the tallness of its development. The anthem is one of the most of import genres which was developed in Byzantine music. There are assorted sorts of anthems such as the troparia , kontakia and kanones . In an inernet article of Byzantine music Dimitri E. Conomos references that: During the first nine centuries of Christianity, the Byzantine musical tradition of plainsong managed to maintain alive a certain improvisatory excitement that was besides manifest in the spontaneousness of supplications and rites in the early Christian Holy Eucharist. Now, with some shots of a 9th-century pen, the plainchant tunes were caught in a stiff stylization. They became as if embalmed and their stylistic profiles conformed to 9th-century and finally, subsequently, gustatory sensations. The old chants that originated as sung supplications were henceforth crystallised art-objects. Troparia are short responses between the Psalms. The first troparia were written in the fourth century. The tune type of troparia bit by bit became quite important and easy some of troparia developed into more independent anthem. Harmonizing to the cyberspace article, Orama World there is a possibility, that the earliest sets of troparia were those of the known writing of monastic Auxentios which dated from the 5th century. Two of the most of import illustrations of troparia are the Phos Hilarion , which means Gladsome Light , and is dated from the fourth century and O Monogenis Yios , which means the merely Begotten Son . These two illustrations can be found in the introductory portion of the Thia Litourgia which is the Divine Liturgy . The Troparia terminal with two words mentioning to God and are repeated many clip. The features of these anthems are the stichera and the kanones. The stichera are sung in between the poetries of the Psalms. Sticheron is one of the most important parts of Byzantine anthem and the complete music of the stichera is the Sticherarion. The development of the kontakion began during the fifth century A.D. It is a long and complicated metrical discourse. Kontakia evolved from 13 into 18, and in some instances into more than that, with stanzas which are all structurally similar. Accoridng to an cyberspace article in the Britannica Online Encyclopedia, kontakion was introduced into the Byzantine spiritual pattern by St. Romanos Melodos during the first half of the sixth century. St. Romanos became one of the greatest early Christian poets. Harmonizing to the writer of an article in the Goarch it is stated that the first notated versions of kontakia were melismatic which means that there were many notes per syllable and they appeared during the ninth century. Kanones, and their tunes contain texts which were hodgepodges of stereotypic phrases. The tunes were developed harmonizing to the rule of centonization which was qiote common in Eastern music at the clip. Alexander Lingas in his article Hesychasm and Psalmody which is found in the book Mount Athos and Byzantine Monasticism , references that the Sticherarion, which is a book incorporating theoretical account tunes for canons and stichera, contains some syllabic tunes which are easy and each 1 has a alone melodious expression. Sticheron is a type of anthem which is used in the Divine Liturgy. In an article which is found in Grove Music Online , Kenneth Levy and Christian Troelsgard reference that kanones are hymnodic composites which are comprised of nine odes. Each ode includes the heirmos which is followed by troparia with the same music and metrical reproductions as the heirmos. The nine odes are normally independent. A kanon consists of nine different and independent tunes. As Grigorios Stathis references in I- I’I†¦I ¶I ±I?I„I?I?I ® I?I?I†¦I?I?I?I ® I?I„I · I »I ±I„I?I µI?I ± I?I ±I? I?I„I ·I? IIˆI?I?I„I ®I?I · , ( Byzantine music in faith and scientific discipline ) , psalmodia is another basic feature of the Christian Orthodox people. The Byzantine music is music which is wholly written for the church and it is used in the Christian Orthodox Churches in to pray to God, the Son and the Virgin Mary. Alexander Lingas in Hesycasm and Psalmody , says that during the 14th century the hymnody used in the Byzantium had a scope of signifiers and was thought to be a really important cloistered plus which held the chance of being infused with the idea and this shows that the hymnody was accomplished with the head and bosom on God. Psalmodia is sung by the psaltes who are trained in order to sing church music. Psalmodia is the lone chant of the Greek Orthodox Church. Christians who were Grecian speech production used the term psalmodia in order to picture the signifiers of the liturgical vocalizing. Psalmodia which was used in Constantinople had a important map in the agreement of the different Rite of the Church of Hagia Sofia. Alexander Lingas in Music and Liturgy of the Orthodox Traditions references that: All public services of the Byzantine rite are sung, there being no equivalent in the churches of the Orthodox East to the Low Mass of the Latin West. While the proper ecclesiastical term for liturgical vocalizing remains psalmodia, the repertories of plainsong that developed in tandem with the services of the Byzantine rite are today frequently referred to as Byzantine chant or Byzantine music . Chapter four The New Method or Chrysanthine Method Chrysanthos had a good instruction, really good cognition of Latin and Gallic and every bit good as European and Arabic music. He started off as a monastic and so became a hierarch. Peter Byzantios so taught Chrysanthos to intone until Chrysanthos could be considered as a great instrumentalist and composer. Harmonizing to Dimitri E. Comonos article, he mentions that before the foundation of the School, Chrysanthos had used traditional methods of learning which caused his expatriate from the Constantinopolitan Patriarchal to Madytos. However, Chrysanthos did non halt learning the ecclesiastical music because his system for learning was really effectual due to his pupils being able to larn the music notation system of Byzantine music merely in 10 months and non 10 old ages. Subsequently on Holy Synod decides to accept his learning methods and in 1815 he stated learning at the 3rd Patriarchal School along with Protopsaltis Grigorios and the archivist Chourmouzios. In the prologue of I?I µI†°I?I ·I„I?I?I?I? I?I ­I?I ± I„I ·I‚ I?I?I†¦I?I?I?I ®I‚ I?I?I†¦I?I?I?I ®s I §I?I†¦I?I ¬I?I?I?I†¦ I„I?I†¦ I µI? I?I ±I?I?I„I†°I? ( Theoritikon Mega Ti MI?usikis Chrysanthou tou ek Maditon ) , Georgios N. Constantinou quotes the words of Dionysius Vatopedinos which were said during the Holy Eucharist in the Patriarchical Music School: IsI ±I„I ±I†¦I„I ¬I‚ [ I„I ±I‚ I ·I?I ­I?I ±I‚ ] I ·I?I?I?I†¡I?I · I µI? I?I?I?I?I?I? I?I†¡I?I »I µI?I?I? I µI?I‚ I„I? I?I?I?I ±ISI„I?I?I?I? I?I µI„I?I†¡I?I?I? I?I ±I? IˆI ±I?I ±I?I?I?I µI? I?I ­I ±I? I?I ­I?I?I?I?I? I µIˆI?I?I„I ·I?I?I?I?I?I ®I‚ I?I?I†¦I?I?I?I ®I‚ I?I µ I?I ±I?I?I?I µI‚ I?I ±I? I?I?I ±I?I?I ±I„I?I?I ®I? . I?I†¡I?I »I ±I?I†¡I?I?I?I„I µI‚ I µI?I‚ I ±I†¦I„I ®I? I µI?I?I ±I? I ­I?I ±I‚ I?I ±I »I?I?I ·I?I?I‚ I §I?I?I?I ±I?I?I?I‚ I?I ±I? I? I†ºI ±I?IˆI ±I?I ¬I?I?I?I‚ I„I ·I‚ I?I µI?I ¬I »I ·I‚ II?I?I »I ·I?I?I ±I‚ , I?I ±I? I?I†¦I?I„I?I ­I†¡I?I†¦I?I?I? I µI?I‚ I ±I†¦I„I ®I? I?I ±I?I µI?Ià ‚ ¬I?I„I ·I? I†¦IˆI ­I? I„I?I†¦I‚ I?I?I ±I?I?I?I?I?I†¦I‚ I?I ±I?I ·I„I ¬I‚ , I µI? I ±I†¦I„IZI? I µI?I?I ±I? I?I ±I? I ±I?I†¡I?I µI?I µI?I‚ I?I ±I? IˆI?I†°I„I?I?I?I?I?I µI »I?I? ( ) , ( 1815 ) . The account of Dionysius Vatopedinos s missive is the followers: In those yearss a new school opened and teaches a new scientific method of music with regulations and grammar. Teachers are the monastic Chrysanthos and the torchbearer of the Great Church, and more than two 100 pupils are go toing it. Among them are priest and bishops ( aˆÂ ¦ ) , ( 1815 ) . Dionysius Vatopedinos fundamentally states that a school was opened in order to learn the new method of Byzantine music notation which included grammar and regulations of music. The chief instructors were Chrysanthos, a monastic, and the torchbearer of the Great Church. Many pupils including monastics, priests and society people had visited the school in order to larn the New Method of Byzantine music notation. David J. Melling references in an article that: Confronting the complex and hard notation they inherited from their mediaeval predecessors, and an emerging spread between the musical texts used by adept psaltai and the traditional liturgical tunes handed down by ear, several instrumentalists attempted to reform the notation to bring forth something simpler and more intuitive. Indeed, there is grounds that there had already emerged ways of composing a rapid short-hand version of the marks which could even be used to observe down a tune as it was being Sung. A peculiarly successful simplification was designed by Peter Lampadarios [ +1777 ] , but this was eclipsed by the great Reform of the Three Teachers, Houmouzios, Grigorios and Chrysanthos, who designed a new, more analytic notation and transcribed into it a prodigious figure of texts from the psaltic repertory. The New Method of Byzantine Music notation was created during the eighteenth century and began to be taught in the nineteenth century. This included rather simple marks against the two old methods of Byzantine music notation. The New Method is besides called the Chrysanthine Method which took its name from the monastic Chrysanthos who subsequently moved on to became one of the reformists of the church s music notation in 1815. The other reformists of the Byzantine New notation system were Chourmouzios the archivist and Gregorios the Protopsaltis, who was lampadarios ( torchbearer ) . The New Method is still used even today. In The manners and Tuning in Neo-Byzantine Chant Frank Harry Desby references that: Before the New system, ten old ages were required to larn music. The new method made it possible to larn in 10 months. Kate Romanou besides mentions in her article A New Approach to the work of Chrysanthos of Madytos that: The New Method preserved the earlier differentiation between the quantitative and the qualitative neumes. The former indicated the existent notes, while the latter, the rhythmic and expressive niceties or decorations which applied to the notes. Apart from the old marks The New Method, includes new marks of which some were phrasing marks, marks for chromatic intervals, remainders and continuance marks. Chrysanthos besides abrogated a few of the old marks and established new ways of notating. Furthermore in an article Dimitri E. Conomos references that: Chrysanthos besides introduced new procedures of transition and chromatic change and abolished some of the notational symbols. As a consequence of these attempts, a big repertory of psalmody was made available to melody pipes who were ignorant of the melodic and dynamic content of the old marks. With those alterations the choirmasters had the chance to sing a batch of anthem which were hard to make with the old notation systems. In an cyberspace article found in The music portal , the author references that there are three basic tones which are used in order to tune the sound. These tones, which are characteristic of the New Method, are the meizon ( major ) , elasson ( minor ) and the elachistos ( minimun ) . It is besides mentioned that each tone is made up from two tetra chords and one major tone. Byzantine music can acknowledge the octave but the sounds are based in tetra chords and pentachords which are groups of four and five notes consequently. Byzantine Psalmodia uses assorted manners and the choirmaster must cognize all the types every bit good as the features of the manners, in order to understand and be able to intone the music. In another cyberspace article found in The music portal , it is stated that this system is made up of eight manners or echoi ( sounds ) which are split into in the chief four sounds and the five manners. Each reverberation ( sound ) has a different intervals every bit good as gradual development. Morover, Chrysanthos besides structured the eight manners into three different types which are the diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic. These types are besides called three Genera. The diatonic genera, is split into three basic types: the meizon ( major ) , elasson ( minor ) and elaxistos ( lower limit ) . The octave of dad, vou, tabun, di, ke, zw, Ni is divided into 72 stairss or tones. The major tone had 12 grades, which means one tone or measure. The minor tone had 10 grades which means one measure and the minimal tone had 8 grades which means half measure. The diatonic graduated table has besides been a ground of an statement which took topographic point between Chourmouzios and Chrysanthos. Harmonizing to an article written by Ioannis Plemenos, Chrysantho s sentiment was that the diatonic scale consist of major and minor tones, one by one, which began with a minimal tone and hence the diatonic graduated table consisted of 64 units. However the the right graduated table for Chrysanthos had to dwell of 68 units. Therefore, Chourmouzios suggest a new version which could finish the graduated table of Chrysanthos and which consisted of 69 units. Finally, Chrysanthos borrowed the 72 unit division from Aristoxenos, who was a good know mathematician and great music theoretician at the clip. Antioxenos had expressed his ain sentiment in concern to the music intervals of the diatonic graduated table which was the 1 that had the highest proportion. In the image below we can see the diatonic graduated table, as they are in the internet article of David J. Melling: F G A Bb C D E F | 12 | 10 | 8 | 12 | 12 | 10 | 8 | Ga Di Ke Zo Ni Pa Vu Ga The diatonic graduated table is divided in three different types which are the diapason, troxos and triphonia. Diapason is non tranferable and Troxos can besides be called as tetraphonia. In The manners and Tuning in Neo-Byzantine Chant Frank Harry Desby states that: The tetachords are all disjunct. In triphonia the tetra chords are conjuct. The diapason assortment was normally found on kanona or pandoura. Pandoura is a twine instrument which includes three brace of strings. In an article found on the Remoundos web page, the writer references that During the Byzantine period, it [ the pandoura ] is appeared to derive some credence among the civilized persons, since the Archbishop Chrysanthos considered that it was necessary for learning Byzantine music. On pandoura there are some rings which are used in order to slpit the musical instrument into assorted parts where the notes are fixed. Harmonizing to Frank Harry Desby in The manners and Tuning in Neo-Byzantine Chant , he states that the tuning of pandoura has intervals for illustration, perfect fourths and fifths, which are ordinary intervals. However it besides includes some assorted sound effects, for illustration the diapason system is the one which is used in most instances. By stating troxos we mean tetraphonia or a rhythm of five notes. The octave between troxos and diapason is rather similar. Finally, the triphonia or tetrachordon as the tetra chords are joint. In his book, The manners and Tuning in Neo-Byzantine Chant , Frank Harry Desby states that it consists of four confused tetrachords or joint fifths. In this graduated table nevertheless there is no meizon ( major ) tone. In another article, David J. Melling besides mentions that: Here we have big tones of 12 steplets, indistinguishable in size with the Enharmonic tones, but accompanied by lesser tones of 10 steplets and big half steps of 8 steplets. The chromatic graduated table is divided in two types. These are the difficult chromatic graduated table and the soft chromatic graduated table. Below we can see the two types of chromatic graduated tables: Hard chromatic graduated table: D Eb F # G A Bb C # D | 6 | 20 | 4 | 12 | 6 | 20 | 4 | Pa Vu Ga Di Ke Zo Ni Pa Soft chromatic graduated table: C Db E F G Ab B C | 8 | 14 | 8 | 12 | 8 | 14 | 8 | Ni Pa Vu Ga Di Ke Zo Ni The enharmonic graduated table consists merely of 12 and 6 grades: F G A Bb C D E F | 12 | 12 | 6 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 6 | Ga Di Ke Zo Ni Pa Vu Ga Pa Calciferol Rhenium Vou Tocopherol Myocardial infarction Tabun F Fa Di Gram Sol Ke A La Zo Bacillus Silicon Nickel C Nto Chrysanthos made usage of the first seven letters derived from the Greek alphabet which is based on the European system. The graduated table includes the undermentioned syllables: dad, vou, tabun, di, ke, zo, ni. The notes of these syllables are shown in the tabular array below. The chief marks of the Chrysanthine method are ten and their names are: ison, oligon, petasti, kentimata, kentima, hypsele, apostrophos, hyporroi, elafron and chamele. These marks show whether the voice goes down or up or remain the same. These marks are the intermission marks and are besides called neumes. Below the marks and their accounts can be seen, as taken from an on article of St. Anthony s Monastery written by monk Ephraim: ison Chapter V Advantages and disadvantages, of the new method. The Byzantine music first notation was non really good structured, as there were adequate jobs. The most of the anthem were hard to intone from the choirmasters, as they could non transcribed them. The Paleo-Byzantine Music was excessively complicated, but besides non effectual, as a consequence to be difficult for people to understand it and intone the anthem. Kate Romanou, in A New Approach to the work of Chrysanthos of Madytos references that: If, in malice of the great demand of a simpler musical system, all old efforts to accomplish a reform had failed, it was because they adhered to one of two extremely contradictory attacks: the first which wholly broke with tradition, and the 2nd which displayed the familiar complexness and deficiency of lucidity. The 600 old ages of Middle-Byzantine Music notation usage, show that this notation was better than the first 1. Middle-Byzantine notation system was a complete system but included excessively many complex marks. As I mentioned earlier the New Method of the Byzantine Music notation or else the Chrysanthine notation was and still is the simplest notation system for the Byzantine music. Against the Paleo-Byzantine music notation system, the new system and its marks helped the melody pipes to understand the manner that the anthem must be chanted. Despite the jobs that the Middle Byzantine Music notation faced, it existed for many centuries. The Chrysanthine method was that one which exists since the decennary of 1800 until presents. The marks that Chrysanthos adds to his method describe really clearly how the notes and by and large the tune must be chant. In an cyberspace article, the writer references that: Byzantine notation can be used as a rapid stenographic transcriptional method to compose down a tune faster than one could make so utilizing Western notation. This is peculiarly helpful when seeking to enter unrecorded music on paper. Although there are at least a 100 marks in the Byzantine notation, it is preferred for most of the people. It is non difficult for people to larn the Byzantine music notation, it takes merely a small clip. The marks that Chrysanthos added to the new notation system were really helpful. Traveling to the dissadvantages of the New method of Byzantine music notation, I would wish to advert that despite the disagvantages, no 1 believed that the new method should be changed for a new one. Of class there were some suggestions for altering the system but they declined. The first trouble to the Byzantine notation of Chrysanthos was that the Byzantine music of Constantinople did non accept the tetrafonia. During 1878, as I found in an cyberspace article, some people tried to convert the Grecian society of Constantinople to compose the Byzantine anthem utilizing the European system notation. Finally, this was neer happened. During the clip that Chrysanthos introduced the New Method, there were some reactions against the new system. In an cyberspace article and harmonizing to proffesor Ioannis Plemenos, there were many expostulations from the people and espacially for Vasileios Stephanides, a musician and physician during 1819. Vasileios Stephanides believed that Chrysanthos s determination non to utilize some of the marks of the old notation systmes was incorrect. In 1820, as Ioannis Plemenos references in his article, Apostolos Konsta was besides did non accept the New Method of Chrysanthos. Ioannis Plemenos places the words of Apostolos Konsta, which are the undermentioned: ( ) I ­I?I ±I?I µ I?I ±I? I ±I†¦I„I? I?I†¡I?I »I µI?I?I? I?I?I?I?I? I„I†°I? I† I?I?I?I?I†°I? , I?I„I ¬I?I µI†°I? I?I ±I? I†¡I µI?I?I?I?I?I?I?I ±I‚ I?I?I ± I?I ­I?I?I†¦ I„I ·I‚ I?I†¦I?I?I ·I„I?I?I ®I‚ , I ­I†¡I ±I?I µ I?I?I†°I‚ , I ±I »I »I?I?I?I?I?I?I? , I„I ·I? I ±I?I?I µI »I?I?I ®I? I?I µI »I†°I?I?I ±I? , I„I ± I?I?I„IZ I?I ­I?I · I„I ·I‚ I?I »I†¦I?I†¦I„I ¬I„I ·I‚ I µIˆI?I?I„I ®I?I ·I‚ . This means: The three instructors opened a school, merely for notes, remainders and Heironomia, but they lost the b eatific tune and the eight parts of the sweet scientific discipline . Apostolos Konsta means that the new school which opened to learn the New Method of Chrysanthos, was learning merely some notes and marks and lost the chief topic which was the beautiful tune. Another job as Ioannis Plemenos references in his article, it was that Georgios the Lesbios, believed that the New system was non good structured because the three instructors did non seek to happen new marks to increase the notes in a specific pitch. Those who were supported the old notation systems did non desire Chrysanthos to learn the New Method, but eventually allow him to learn, although they were opposite. Chrysanthos was learning in the Third Patriarchical Music School. Consequences and results The Greeks owe the musical notation used today in their churches to Chrysanthos of Madytos, Gregory the Protopsaltes and Chourmouzios the Chartophylax. This notational system, known today as the New Method. With the scrutiny of the old notations we conclude that the extant information about the development of Byzantine notation from the autumn of Constantinople to the 19thA century vividly illustrates the fact that Grecian church instrumentalists had become progressively more baffled and puzzled by the old system. At the same clip Byzantine anthem were being sung more and more from unwritten tradition despite the fact that a series of efforts had been made to simplify the bing notation. Byzantine music is the most of import facet of the Orthodox Christian Church. In our yearss the Orthodox Christian Church is still utilizing the New notation system for their chants and anthem. What is the ground of making that? The ground is that Byzantine notation system is the lone manner to notate the anthem and chants, as the melodious lines includes tonss of melismas but besides hard and unusual types of harmoniousness. Another ground is that, Church wants to forestall its tradition and a manner of making that is maintain that notation system. With analyzing the Byzantine music we can see that Christians use the voice entirely in executing of anthem, intoning as did our Godhead Himself and His adherents. St. John Chrysostom says: Our Savior chanted anthem merely as we do. The Apostolic Constitutions forbid the usage of musical instruments in the church. From the clip of the Apostles, hymnody was single-channel, or homophonic, as it is to this twenty-four hours in our churches [ in Greece ] . The Western Church, in order to satisfy people and blandish their gustatory sensations, put instruments inside the churches, disobeying what was ordained by the Fathers. They did this because they had no thought what liturgical music was and what secular music was, merely as they did non cognize the difference between liturgical picture and secular picture. But the Byzantines distinguished the one from the other, and this shows how much more religious they were in comparing with the Westerners and how much more genuinely they experienced the spirit of Christianity. Byzantine music is, in comparing with the music of the West, precisely as Orthodox iconography is in comparing with the spiritual picture of the West.

Learn the Building Blocks of Chinese Characters

Learn the Building Blocks of Chinese Characters While learning to speak Chinese at a basic level isnt that much harder than learning other languages (its even easier in some areas), learning to write is definitely and without a doubt much more demanding. Learning to Read and Write Chinese Is Not Easy There are many reasons for this. First, its because the link between the written and spoken language is very weak. While in Spanish you can mostly read what you can understand when spoken and you can write what you can say (bar some minor spelling problems), in Chinese the two are more or less separate. Second, the way Chinese characters represent sounds is complicated and requires much more than learning an alphabet. If you know how to say something, writing is not just a matter of checking how its spelled, you have to learn the individual characters, how they are written and how they are combined to form words. To become literate, you need between 2500 and 4500 characters (depending on what you mean by the term literate). You need many times more characters than the number of words. However, the process of learning to read and write can be made a lot simpler than it first seems. Learning 3500 characters is not impossible and with proper reviewing and active usage, you can also avoid mixing them up (this is actually the main challenge for non-beginners). Still, 3500 is a massive number. It would mean almost 10 characters per day for a year. Added to that, you would also need to learn words, which are combinations of characters that sometimes have non-obvious meanings. ...But It Neednt Be Impossible Either Looks difficult, right? Yes, but if you break these 3500 characters down into smaller components, you will find that the number of parts you need to learn is very far from 3500. In fact, with just a few hundred components, you can build most of those 3500 characters. Before we move on, its perhaps worth noting here that we are using the word component very deliberately instead of using the word radical, which is a small subset of components that are used to classify words in dictionaries. The Building Blocks of Chinese Characters So, by learning the components of characters, you create a repository of building blocks that you can then use to understand, learn and remember characters. This is not very efficient in the short term because each time you learn a character, you need to learn not only that character but also the smaller components its made of. However, this investment will be repaid handsomely later. It might not be a good idea to learn all components of all characters directly but focus on the most important ones first. I will introduce some resources to help you both with breaking characters down into their component parts and where you can find more information about which components to learn first. Functional Components Its important to understand that each component has a function in the character; its not there by chance. Sometimes the real reason the character looks like it does is lost in the mists of time, but often its known or even directly apparent from studying the character. At other times, an explanation might present itself that is very convincing, and even though it might not be etymologically correct, it can still help you to learn and remember that character. In general, components are included in characters for two reasons: first because of the way they sound, and second because of what they mean. We call these phonetic or sound components and semantic or meaning components. This is a very useful way of looking at characters that often yields much more interesting and useful results than looking at the traditional explanation of how characters are formed. Its still worthwhile to have that in the back of your mind when learning, but you dont really need to study it in detail. A Writing Example Lets look at a character most students learn early on: Ã¥ ¦Ë†/Ã¥ ª ½ (simplified/traditional), which is pronounced  mÄ  (first tone) and means mother. The left part Ã¥ ¥ ³ means woman and is clearly related to the meaning of the whole character (your mother is presumably a woman). The right part é © ¬/é ¦ ¬ means horse and is clearly not related to the meaning. However, it is pronounced  mÇŽ (third tone), which is very close to the pronunciation of the whole character (only the tone is different).  This is the way most Chinese characters work, albeit not all. The Art of Combining Characters   All this leaves us with hundreds (rather than thousands) of characters to remember. Apart from that, we also have the additional task of combining the components we have learned into compound characters. This is what were going to look at now. Combining characters is actually not that hard, at least not if you use the right method This is because if you know what the components mean, the character composition itself means something to you and that makes it a lot easier to remember. There is a huge difference between learning a random jumble of strokes (very hard) and combining known components (relatively easy). Improve Your Memory Combining things is one of the main areas of memory training and something that people have had the ability to do for thousands of years. There are many, many methods out there that work really well and that teach you how to remember that A, B, and C belong to each other (and in that order, if you like, although this is often not necessary when it comes to Chinese characters, because you quickly get a feel for that and only a very small number of characters can be mixed up by accidentally moving character components around). The main takeaway is that memory is a skill and its something you can train. That naturally includes your ability to learn and remember Chinese characters. Remembering Chinese Characters The best way of combining components is to create a picture or scene that includes all the components in a memorable way. This should be absurd, funny or exaggerated in some way. Exactly what makes you remember something is something you need to figure out by trial and error, but going for the absurd and exaggerated often works well for most people. You can, of course, draw or use real pictures rather than just imaginary ones, but if you do, you need to be really careful that you dont break the structure of the character. Simply put, the pictures you use to learn Chinese characters should preserve the building blocks that that character consists of. The reason for this should be apparent at this point. If you just use a picture that is suitable for that character, but which doesnt preserve the structure of the character, it will only be useful for learning that very character. If you follow the structure of the character, you can use the pictures for the individual components to learn tens or hundreds of other characters. In short, if you use bad pictures, you lose the benefit of those all-important building blocks. Helpful Resources for Learning Chinese Characters Now, lets look at a few resources for learning the building blocks of Chinese characters: Hacking Chinese: Here youll find a list of the 100 most common radicals. We are mostly concerned with components here, not radicals, but it so happens that radicals are often semantic components, so this list is still useful.Hanzicraft: This is an excellent website that allows you to break down Chinese characters into their component parts. Note that the breakdown is purely visual, so it doesnt really care if its historically correct. You can also find phonetic information here, which is again based only on mechanical comparison of the pronunciation of the components and the full character (its not historically correct either, in other words). Also on the plus side, this site is fast and easy to use.Zdic.net: This is an online, free dictionary that offers decent information about the structure of a character that is also more in line with what we know about the development of a specific character (its manual, not automatic).ArchChinese: This is another online dictionary that gives yo u the ability to both breakdown characters and see the components in context (with frequency information, which is quite rare in other dictionaries). Semantic component posters from Outlier Linguistics: These posters show 100 semantic components and apart from being very informative, they also look great on your wall. They come with information on how to utilize them and accurate descriptions (manually made by people who know a lot about Chinese characters). That should be enough to get you started. There will still be cases you cant find or that dont make sense to you. if you encounter these, you can try a number of different methods, such as creating a picture specifically for that character or making up the meaning on your own - this is easier than trying to remember meaningless strokes.